Neuropsychology Is What You Do Not Know About Your Brain

We turn to neuropsychology, the fields of research in it, as well as the anatomy of the nervous system, which is the basis of this work as whenever we are familiar with it, it is easy for us to locate the injury and link it to a change in the behavior of the individual.

Despite the progress achieved by this science at the level of research centers in the western world, it is still seeking his steps in our Arab countries, although some attempts here or there have succeeded in publishing some research related to the topics of this science, it still requires cooperation and intensification of all those interested in it.

Definition, origin, evolution:

Henry Hecaen defines him as: "The science that studies the higher mental functions and their relationship to neuronal components."

It is understood from this definition that neuropsychology is concerned with the study of disorders that affect cognitive processes whatever their cause (genetic, acquired injury before or after the formation of the job). (Henry, H, 1972, p. 1)

As for Delamare, he says: "It is the science that studies the behavior of an individual, and their relationship to the functions and activity of the nervous system" (Delamare, 1985, p. 561).

This researcher has limited the role of this science in the relationship between behavior or the change of human behavior as a result of an imbalance in the functions or activity of the nervous system.
Sassi Abdelkawi defines him as: "studying the relationship between brain function on the one hand and behavior on the other hand." (Sami Abdul Qawi, 2001, p. 22)

This discourse does not differ from its predecessor, as the intervention or field of research in this science is the study of the relationship between behavior and neurological functions.

The researcher in this definition gave examples of some of the higher mental functions or what is known as cognitive functions such as memory, language ..., and their relationship to the nervous system defect.

This study draws information from more than one science such as Anatomy, Biology, Pharmacology, and Physiology.

Neuropsychology is a relatively recent term, although Bruce sees it first appeared by William W. Osler, and Hebb used it in his book entitled "Organizing behavior: Neuropsychiatry" in 1947.

In 1957, the term became defined as one of the fields of neuroscience, where Kluver raised in the introduction to his book "Behavioral Mechanics in Monkeys" that this book is one of the concerns of neuropsychologists, then the term appeared in the writings of Lashley in 1960, which did not give him a specific definition, If the concept of equal latent power is presented which means that all areas of the brain participate equally in mental functions, then determining the subject of injury is a secondary matter in relation to the size of the injury and that most skills involve many areas of the brain.

The development of neuropsychology theory:

Neuropsychology, despite its novelty in the clinical field, depends on two important axes of studies and theories: the cerebral hypothesis, and the neural hypothesis.

1- The cerebral hypothesis:

This hypothesis sees the brain as the source of the behavior, and the idea of locating brain functions is due to physiology or Phrenology, where German anatomists Franz Josef Gall (1757-1828) and Spurzheim (1776-1832) refer to important points in the anatomy of the organ The nervous system explained that the cerebral cortex consists of neurons that connect to what is under the cortex, describing the locus of the motor cross of the downward motor pathways from the brain, and that the spinal cord consists of a white substance and a gray substance, and that there are two halves that are similar to each other.

As for Pierre Florans Flourens (1794-1867), he attempted to define the various centers of the brain, responsible for some functions, by studying the brain, cerebellum, rectangular cord, spinal cord, and peripheral nerve.

Florans in his studies was cutting and eradicating some nerve penalties to know the function that will be affected by this connection, and he concluded that the brain is the basic unit of the functions of perception, judgment, management, and memory as well as the location of intelligence and that the cerebellum is the part responsible for the synergy and organization of movements, and that the rectangular medulla contains vital centers and its injury It leads to death, as it is considered the area responsible for maintaining body conditions.

As for the spinal cord, it is summarized by the fact that it conducts the conduction process, where it receives stimuli and sends them to their places.
(Sami Abdul Qawi, 1995, p.)

As for the French doctor, Paul Broca (P. Broca (1824-1880), he was able on 18 April 1861 to determine the region responsible for the speech by dissecting the brain of a patient who died and who had speech loss despite the integrity of the members related to this function. (Hecaen, 1972, p. 2)

He noticed, through his autopsy, that an affected area was located in the third left frontal lobe F3, which he considered responsible for the loss of speech.

After this, Karl Frankie K. Bernicke (1848–1904) came to indicate the existence of more than one language region, wherein 1874 he managed to locate another area in the cortex in the first temporal gyrus T1 leading to a loss of memory of auditory images of words.

2- The Neurological Hypothesis:

There are two neurological hypotheses, each of which has a role in the development of neuropsychology, and they try to explain the work of the nervous system: The first is the hypothesis of the neuron and states that the nervous system consists of cells or units that interact together but are not connected.

Doing a specific job, and the second hypothesis is the neural network hypothesis, which indicates that the nervous system consists of a network of interconnected fibers that act as one unit.

The modern genesis of the work of the nervous soul:

John Jackson (1835-1911) was the first to lay down the modern basis for the work of the nervous psyche and wrote more than 300 authors and researches, and I consider that the nervous system consists of a group of layers with a gradual or hierarchical function, and the nineteenth century is considered an increase in knowledge of the structure and functions of the brain There are many contributions that led to the recent development of neuropsychology, after World War II as a result of increased head injuries, the emergence of clinical psychology, through Neurochirurgie neuroscience, psychometry and technological developments in examination tools such as the emergence of the electroencephalogram Electro Encéphale Gramme.

Matazzaro (1972) considers that the recent start of neuropsychology was at the hands of two important pioneers in this field: Arthur A. Benton at the University of Iowa, and Ralph R. Ryan at Indiana University after World War II.

Both of them went in a way where Raytan saw the use of a stationary battery in neuropsychological evaluation now called the Halsted-Raytan battery, and Benton interested in studying neuropsychology and psychology in assessing human behavior, especially aspects related to cognitive functions.

The Benton Neuropsychiatric Laboratory has been able to use many tests, including the Wechsler Masculine Test for various assessments, and he and his colleagues have been able to present extensive studies of Prosopagnosia (non-recognition of familiar faces) through the face recognition test.

The positioning test was also used to assess spatial ability and the tactile perception test, and this laboratory detonated many pieces of research seeking to identify the functions of the two hemispheres, which led to the emergence of many tests for distinguishing between right and left and haptic identification, aphasia tests, and others, (Sami Abdul Qawi, 2001, p. 32)

Added to that were the important contributions made by Halstead, as he observed individuals with cerebral injuries and the change in their behavior, and he tried through his observations to assess these behavioral characteristics by applying a set of tests to these patients.

If we look at the development of the emergence of neuropsychology in different countries of the world, we find that in its modern beginnings it began in Russia in the works of Pavlov and Luria (1902-1977), which saw two directions through which to assess the cerebral functions:

determining the location of the injury.
analyzing the physiological cerebral activities in either England.

The studies were started by Head and Jackson. These studies were based on the distinction of individual unity, and that each case needs to detail its own tests. This trend has shifted attention from locating the position to understanding the deficiencies that affect behavior and in America as well as Thanks to the works of Lashl ey in Washington, albeit the clinical field dates back to Goldstein 1939 studies who studied cerebral function disorders in a similar fashion to the Russian method, and Halstead presented 1955.

Who is a psychologist:

The neuropsychological characteristics, in addition to the possibility of him performing the tasks of the clinical psychologist, he must evaluate other functions that are specific to the nervous system, the brain in particular, and therefore it is required of him to know the anatomical and functional aspects of this part, and the fact that the global trend now seeks to dissolve the differences between disciplines There are different trends in psychology, but there is a new trend that makes the different names for specializations on neurology, psychiatry, and psychology all fall under one name:

Neurosciences and everyone who works in these fields is called a neuroscientist, and this means that these Sat can not be separated from each other because they are simply dealing with a man who regulates his nervous system.

Although this trend is moving forward at the global level, it has not received the same degree of attention in the Arab world, in most universities and at the level of the bachelor's or bachelor's degree the student does not obtain the sufficient quantity and his qualification from neuroscience and psychiatry, and at the level of two master's degrees The doctorate does not have a specific major and sheep just to obtain a degree in psychology, and the specialization is determined by the nature of the thesis in which the student obtained the degree (Sami Abdul Qawi, 2001, p. 37)

This is due to the fact that the nature of the study that is offered to students of psychology in the field of neuroscience and biological sciences is not studied in a manner that allows the student to become familiar with the important aspects of these sciences, and then it becomes difficult for the graduate student to complete his specialization in neuropsychology in a manner Right.

And from it requires a change in many of the curricula taught to our students, and this does not mean that a graduate of psychology or a graduate student should acquire information and skills in psychiatry and neurology to the extent that it is required to treat cases of neurological and psychological diseases and give drugs because it is one of the specialized medical aspects but rather To know all the aspects that would affect an individual’s behavior, including his psychological and nervous condition, and the drugs he deals with that affect his behavior.

The nervous system ( its anatomy and functions)

The nervous system is anatomical, it is the public communication network that links all parts of the body by way of a group of nerves, and from a functional point of view it can be considered as the device that controls the various body systems, and that supervises all organic functions, it is a group of associated centers to which the alerts are received Sensory and give off kinetic alerts and is also associated with glands.

So the nervous system is that device that allows the living organism to perform its functions in an optimal way, in order to achieve an integrated communication and interaction with the internal and external environment by dealing with internal or external stimuli in terms of their reception, awareness, understanding, and evaluation, and then determine the nature of appropriate behavior to deal with these stimuli And then this behavior is implemented, whether voluntary or involuntary, to achieve the appropriate response through which the organism achieves the processes of control, control and adaptation, and in a way that allows it, in the end, to achieve its functions in an integrated manner.

Neuron:

Before we address the anatomical and functional aspects of each part of the nervous system, you must first know the nature of the nervous tissue Tissus Nerveuses, which represent the synthetic basis for this device whose network consists of a basic unit called the neuron.

The neuron, or the so-called neuron, is the basic unit that makes up the whole nervous system. There are about 100 billion cells inside the human body. This cell is the anatomical and functional unit of the nervous system and varies in size and shape (Tony Buzan, 1995, 27).

The main part of the nerve cell is called Soma, or the cell body and its diameter ranges between 5 to 100 micrometers (MM is one-millionth of a meter). The cell body is connected to a group of branches called branches or dendrites and a long tube channel called the Axone and this axis Its length varies from a few millimeters to one or two meters, the latter branches into a large number of Ardorisation tree end or ends, each of which ends in colloidal appendages, which connect to the shrubs of other neurons and differentiate neurons into two types of cells:

A- The Cellule Nerveuse, which transmits, receives, and sends nerve alerts.

B- The supporting cell is known as Nouroglia, which is the cells that connect the nerve cell to each other, and works to protect, support and provide it with the necessary food in order to properly perform its functions, which are cells surrounding the nerve cell, located between cells each other or between cells and blood vessels or between cells and the surface The brain.

As for neurons, they are divided into three types: (see figure ...)

A- Unipolar cells: Unipolar cells that have one axis that branch into two axes and usually spread in the spinal nodes in the spinal cord.

B-polar cells: Bipolar, which is one body that comes out of it plus two, one representing shrubs and the other representing the axis, and this type is spread in the retina.

C- Multipolar cells: where the cell body is polygonal and many dendritic appendages come out of it, as did the axis of the cell, and this type spreads to the cerebral cortex. As for functionally, it is three types as well:

A- Sensory nerves: They contain axons that transmit external sensations from the surface of the skin and various sensory organs, as well as sensations coming from the internal organs, bringing them to the special reception centers of the spinal cord or brain.

B- Kinetic nerves: They contain nervous sources that carry signals and nerve warnings from the areas responsible for movement to the various muscles of the body (voluntary or involuntary) in order for these muscles to relax and contract to perform their various functions.

C- Mixed nerves: They contain axons of the previous two types (sensory-motor) and are the most common nerves inside the body.

The conductive nerve fibers of the sensory stimulation are called the Afferents, while the conductive fibers are called the motor nerves that supply the nerves.

The supplied nerves take special paths in the spinal cord and brain stump until they reach the sensory areas of the cerebral cortex. These pathways are called ascending pathways. While the exporting nerves travel their own pathways from the brain to the parts of the spinal cord until they feed the motor nerves and are known as the descending paths. (Sami Abdul Qawi, 2001, p. 56)

Nerve synapse:

Neurons do not have direct contact between them. Rather, neurotransmitters are transmitted from one cell to another through the fusion areas between the cell bushes and the nerve ending located in the axis of another cell, which we call the synaptic, which is a gap that ranges between 10-50 Manometer (ppb), see figure ...

As shown in the figure, we find that the synaptic consists of a pre-synaptic region that belongs to the neuronal end of the cell, and a post-synaptic region that belongs to other cell capillaries, and between the two regions there is the vacuum of the synaptic itself.

Neurons are usually in a state of electrochemical stability until they are consulted through a message transmitted from one cell to another (outside the cell):

When the message arrives from another cell, the future cell allows the positive ions to enter at a rate of about 100 million ions/sec, which changes the concentration of the cell’s charge Targeted from the negative (normal) to the positive position, forcing this cell to transfer the message across the axis towards the neighboring cell, then this cell returns to the normal negative charge pending another new message as shown in the figure ...

The cell sent through the ends of the ends secretes a chemical Neurotransmetteurs that carries a neuronal message to the future cell of information through the sub-bushes and pushes it towards the cell axis in preparation for the follow-up to its transmission to a third cell, thus the information is transmitted in the form of electrical impulses but is transferred between cells in a chemical system. (Adnan Al-Atoom, 2004, p. 60)

There are a large number of neurotransmitters such as adrenaline, noradrenaline, acetylcholine, dopamine, etc., and increasing or decreasing them leads to disruption of physical or mental functions, and then it requires bitter to restore the balance of these conductors through drugs that modify the number of conductors in neurological problems.

We can find in the mature individual that the connections between neurons are fully developed and new ones do not grow, and between the cell body and appendages there are about 1000 neuron connections from other neurons.

The time it takes for this neuron to complete the process of passing from one cell to another takes approximately 10 milliseconds (Sabri Salit, 2007, p. 40)

Nervous system components:

The nervous system generally consists of two main systems, each of which has its own parts. Therefore, the nervous system can be divided into the following parts:

1- The central nervous system: Système nerveux Central and consists of the following:

The brain:

It is the most mature part and it controls the rest of the system and can be divided into:

Front brain:

The front brain represents the cerebral apex and includes the Cortex cortex, the Système limbic peripheral, the Thalamus skill, and the Hypothalamus skill.

The anterior brain consists of two parts:

the intercostal brain (brain bed) and the hemispherical hemisphere and covered by the cerebral cortex to the top, and the third ventricle is located in the middle of the interstitial brain where the thalamus is located, within which the optic sclerosis is located, while on the surface of the intercostal brain there is a thick bundle of fibers connecting the sea horse Hippocampus with papillary bodies

The following shows the role of some of these parts and brain lobes during mental illness:

- The cerebral cortex:

It is a bark layer of a thickness of 1-3 mm that covers the brain and has a gray color on the outside and white on the inside, in which there are convolutions called cerebral gyrus.

The cerebral cortex appears under the microscope divided into six layers that differ between them in terms of cellular density and the structure of their cells, and the cells of each layer are done as establishing their own combination of relationships within the brain, for example, the fifth layer sends its elongations to areas behind the cerebral cortex called the following Putamen, And the nucleus coma region Noyaucandée which form the kinetic activity system including the movement of the members of the speech and speech apparatus and the region of the upper colliculi supré responsible for the treatment of visual kinetic functions, and the sixth layer cells send their elongations towards the Thalamus through which the input Sensual language (audio-visual) of the brain circumference up to the cortex.

The outer brain of each half of the brain is divided into four types of lobes: the Lobes Frontales, the Lobes Pariétal, the Lobes Temporels, and the Lobes Occipitals.

These lobes are bordered by two major slits, the central fissure of Rolando fissure, which is located between the 4 regions. On the one hand, and regions 3, 2, and 1 on the other side, according to the Yrodman division, which separates the anterior half of each of the two halves, etc. from the posterior half, and thus the central fissure separates the frontal lobes, and below we address these lobes in the case of treatment the information:

Frontal lobes:

The frontal lobes contain organizations of cognitive activity, especially those related to attention that seem to be a primary test for starting the processing of linguistic inputs, as it is a center of working memory, but the most important thing here is the presence of the Broca region (area 40) the division of Broadman, the area of the motor center of speech in the third The posterior of the frontal lobes located in the left hemisphere of the brain, where damage in this region leads to motor aphasia or Broca aphasia.

The cortex

before the frontal cortex Préfrontal shares these lobes with the excitation of the nervous activity or inhibition in different parts of the brain, thus the information that is dependent For its part, it can direct neurons in the motor centers to implement in turn the movements of the eyes, mouth, hands, and other members of the linguistic performance.

It also participates in the processes of attention to different sounds. The prefrontal cortex also participates in regulating motor behavior by generating, programming, facilitating, or canceling orders issued to the involved brain structures. Directly in directing the muscle movement of the body parts.

Temporal lobes

The temporal lobes participate in many processes of understanding, as are the brain components located below these lobes in the processes of remembering and verbal description of the memories of a particular conversation, also participate in the listening process to distinguish a sound from among several voices that constitute the conversation that you want to extract.

if you listen For a conversation taking place near you and you try to distinguish between the voices of the speakers and get to know the voice of a specific person from among them, you are using your temporal lobes to retrieve what is previously stored for that particular person’s voice.

These lobes are divided into:-

primary regions:

responsible for the processes of reflection of external stimuli, especially auditory ones, which are responsible for distinguishing between the degrees of the unit and intensity of different sounds, and that any damage that affects them increases the threshold for the auditory sensation.

the secondary areas of these lobes are concerned with the process of accurate identification of Sounds and the distinction between groups of sound stimuli that a person is exposed to at the same time, as well as a distinction between a series of consecutive voices of different degrees of intensity (Abdel Wahab Kamel, 1997, p. 65),

the most important thing to consider here is the presence of the French region (the sensory center of speech) This region and around to the loss of the ability to recognize the significance of words and imbalance in the linguistic understanding of what is known as his imprisonment Frenki.

Mural lobes:

These lobes are located between the lobes on one side and the temporal lobes on the other side. The gyrus angular region includes area 39 in the Brodman division, where these lobes share with the occipital lobes and the gyrus supermaterial gyrus region (or region 40).

In the process of visual perception, general spatial orientation, and some special reading skills, especially the part that connects the parietal, occipital and temporal lobes, or what is known as angular gyrus, and those affected in these areas cannot draw the language letters that are read to them accurately, as this region is involved in organizing symbolic structures, and therefore the Damage to this region leads to language disturbance known as forgetful aphasia.

* Background lobes:

These lobes differ in the function of recognition and visual perception, as they contain primary regions that receive visual stimuli coming from the optic nerve, and these areas are located at the bottom base of the occipital lobes, after which these inputs are purified, represented, and analyzed as they pass forward through the occipital lobes, where my region 17 From the visual cortex, 18 the information coming through the optic nerve pathway then performs a simple treatment of the lines formed by these systems.

After analyzing and translating the visual information code entered into the primary visual areas, it is transferred to the secondary 19 regions, and In which the process of understanding and realizing the object that was stereotactic planning was done during the initial region, and this realization process takes place in light of the previous visual information that was stored.

Peripheral device: Systeme Limbique

The peripheral system is one of the main parts of the brain, and it consists of a group of cerebral convolutions located at the inner surface of the temporal lobe, and the first to describe this device is James Babys in 1937 and is of particular importance in relation to the emotional functions in general. and consists of parts next:

* Hippocampus sea horse

It consists of an essential part called the hippocampus, which is in the form of a letter (U). This part plays a fundamental role in permanent memory, especially the process of keeping or storing, in addition to its role in the memory of recent events.

Clinical observations have shown on patients who have had surgery to remove the internal part of The temporal examination, including the sea horse, that they are unable to form new memories, despite their remembrance of past events, as well as playing a role in executive functions (Louis Kamel, 2010, p. 30) for administrative movements, as it plays a role in analyzing and using spatial information, Through his relationship to network configuration, he plays a horse Sea an important role in the degree of attention of the individual and his vigilance, also has a key role in the emotion of concern, as well as it gives relaxation signals under Almohad that directs commands to the self-nervous system gives the emotional response that suit the need of the body when exposed individual risk or situations that threaten integration.

* Septum barrier

It consists of a group of nerve seizures on the inner surface of the temporal lobe, which is smaller than a sea horse. It controls sleep functions, the organization of spatial processes, memory, especially working memory, and emotional functions, especially aggressive behavior.

Sea horses and the barrier are bound together to form a single system that has great value in emotional processes, especially anxiety and emotional behavioral responses such as avoidance responses, defensive responses, escape behavior, and conditional learning behaviors (Sami Abdul Qawi, 2001, p. 131)

* Tonsil: Amygdale

It has a strong relationship with emotion, its type, and intensity, and experiments have proven that amygdala alert leads to the emergence of aggressive tendencies and responses that amount to killing, which is the opposite of a sea horse that gives relaxing signals, as it plays an essential role in the process of remembering, and determines the quality and nature of memorial patterns that must be kept.

The amygdala determines whether we will treat things as edible or not, as it collects previous experiences and uses them to judge what is visible whether it is food or not.

Amygdala's injuries lead to compulsive oral responses by putting all things in the mouth compulsively, the emergence of fear without justification, increased sexual behavior, as well as motor excess.

* Ercu: Uncus

This part plays an essential role in the processes of smell and taste, and its injury leads to the appearance of so-called epileptic seizures, which are episodes in which the patient does not completely lose consciousness, but he is in a dream-like condition.

It can be said that the peripheral system works as one unit integrated and functionally interconnected so that we cannot separate any part of it because it is related and connected, and this penalty works among them to choose the appropriate behavior that the individual performs when he is exposed to many stimuli that require a response, for the cerebral cortex is specialized With complex and complex mental processes, the terminal face works to integrate and link these processes.

The thalamus: Thalamus

Also known as the brain bed, it is located at the center of the brain at the level of the eyes, and it maintains the sensory information coming through the nerves to the cortex, so it is a bridge between much of the information that enters the two hemispheres of the brain and plays a role in controlling sleep and wakeful responses.

Under the hypothalamus: Hypothalamus

It is known as the hypothalamus, where it is located at the base of the anterior brain, the thalamus, and its functions are related to the regulation of eating and drinking, controlling temperature, mood, sleep, and self-defense, regulating the work of the endocrine system and achieving the balance of the body.

Middle Brain

It includes the two colliculi Supérieur that are responsible for controlling visual reflexes, as well as the lower colliculi Inferieur, which are responsible for controlling auditory reflexes. Like a heartbeat, respiratory rate and movement, so it is important as a basic stimulant to start the process of processing information by directing our attention to stimuli and also in expressing the appropriate kinetic response to these stimuli, and helps the response emanating from the body’s organs through some parts of the body. Ri, a gray matter Matiere Grise black material and Substance Noir nerve nucleus red Noyau Rouge

* Back brain:

It consists of the back of the brain where it consists of the following parts:

Rectangular marrow:

It is located in the back of the brain at the point of entry into the spinal cord, which is a thicker and broader marrow of a rectangular shape and through it, the body information intersects to the opposite part of the brain, and plays an important role in controlling respiratory processes, heart activity, digestion and swallowing The various also plays a role in the processes of transferring information between the two parts of the brain.

Bridge:

The bridge is located on a rectangular medulla about 3.2 cm long. It contains fibers that help pass information between the hemispheres of the brain and the cerebellum. It also contains part of the retinal formation.

The cerebellum:

It is a bulbous body that consists of two hemispheres, each of which performs functions related to the opposite part of the body, and can be divided into three parts (Temple, 1994, p. 95) is the primordial cerebellum that receives vestibular stimuli for balance from the inner ear, and the old cerebellum Who receives sensory touch and pressure information on the tendons and nerves, and that cerebellum that coordinates fine movements, motor harmony, and muscle tension, and so this last part has a very important role for coordination and motor harmony of the muscles of the body's organs.

* Body: Corps Calleux

It is the body that connects the left and right brain parts and is more like a white wall separating about 4-6 cm long, containing about 200 million neurons.
It plays a role in regulating brain function by exchanging information between the spherical hemispheres and every neuron within it that starts from one hemisphere to the other without clashing connections between them, which means that the nerve cells of the body are longer than other cells in the human brain, and it crosses the first neurons in the body Hemispherical to another during the period of fetal growth during the twelfth and thirteenth weeks until it is fully and definitively formed during the eighteenth to twentieth week, so any disruption in this growth process results in the case of refugee children.

And it is important in the development of certain language skills, as the use of language in its social context.

2- Spinal cord: Moelle spinner

The spinal cord is found in the inner cavity of the spine, which is an almost cylindrical body about 45 cm in length and ends in a thin thread and connects from above to the rectangular medulla, and the spinal cord connects to various parts of the body through 31 pairs of nerve fibers that branch from the sides of the spinal cord to be called Fork nerves.

The spinal cord has two main functions: the first is that it functions as an important pathway for the transmission of nerve impulses to and from the brain, and the second is an important center for reflex or involuntary acts, as doing such an effective activity does not require brain intervention, but there are some reflexes in which the upper centers interfere In the brain, like a sneeze reflex, we feel signs of sneezing before it happens, so we can resist it.

The final characteristics of the central nervous system: can be summarized in the following:

The brain and spinal cord are protected inside the bones of the skull and spine.
The brain and spinal cord are surrounded by three layers of trance: the dura mater from the outside, then the arachnoid in the middle, and finally the affectionate mother from the inside.
The brain and spinal cord are protected by transparent cerebrospinal fluid that circulates around the brain and spinal cord membranes and is nourished by the blood and works to help them get rid of excess waste.

The brain and spinal cord as a result of the presence of bones, membranes, and cerebrospinal fluid are characterized by self-protection against trauma, bruises, and minor and moderate wounds.

2- Peripheral nervous system: Système Nerveux Périphérique

It consists of a group of nerves branching from the central nervous system, and includes nodes and nerve fibers and contains only shrubs or long axes, surrounded by the myelin sheath, and there are no cell bodies in these nerves because they are only found in the central nervous system and represent messengers of the central nervous system to parts of the body.
There are two different types:

* Cerebral Nerves: Nerfs Cranieux

The number of these nerves is twelve pairs, each nerve of which takes a Latin numbering that extends from the first to the twelfth nerve, and they all communicate with each other except the first couple and are called the axial part of the brain, i.e. brain stem.

Some of these nerves are sensory (supplied), others are motility (supplied), and there is a third mixed type.

Spinal nerves: Nerfs Rachidiens.

There are 31 pairs branched from different regions through the channels between the vertebrae in the spinal cord and are divided as follows 8 Cervical nerves, 12 Thoracique thoracic nerves, 5 Lombaire dorsal nerves, 5 Sacré nerve nerves, 01 Copy coccyges.

It is functionally divided into two parts:

A body nervous system that organizes the work of human-controlled organs such as skeletal muscle.

A self-nervous system that regulates the actions of the involuntary organs (internal viscera) such as the heart, lungs, stomach, and intestine, that is, it controls all self-actions, which in turn is divided into:

Sympathique (sympathetic nervous system):

It performs its functions under abnormal conditions of psychological and physical stress, which is characterized by an increase in the secretion of certain hormones such as (noradrenaline) as a result of fear and agitation, which increases the heart rate and increases the respiratory rate above the normal limits (Khalid Al-Kubaisi, 2001, p. 108)

Parasympathique (parasympathetic nervous system):

Who performs the functions in cases of physical and psychological comfort ie the usual active asymmetric brain anatomy

Anatomical studies have shown that there are fundamental functional differences between the two hemispheres of the brain.

Language functions, for example, are located in the left hemisphere (the dominant half), as are the analytical and mental functions.

Therefore, the verbal half is called Vernal, Analytique, and Realistic. Liner's linearity where he begins dealing with the penalty and collects it in a logical way, and rearranges it until it reaches the result, as it runs the information in a progressive or sequential manner Sequential, so he tends to make daily plans and schedules, and continues to perform his sub-tasks until he finishes the main task as well The left half tends to deal with symbols, words, letters, complex mathematical operations, digital skills, color and instrument recognition, musical recognition, scientific skills, and recognition of both sides of the body, owners of this half prefer verbal and computational workers and have the ability to express themselves in a good way.

As for the right half, it has unique functions related to intuition, excitement, creativity, and imagination, and it has a role in analyzing and identifying three-dimensional shapes or the so-called visual-spatial capabilities of the surrounding world, and therefore it is called the nonverbal half, Norverhol, Sensorial, and Intuitive.

Total operation of information starting from the whole to the parts (the method is gestalt), as it performs the functions that require total evaluations of the topics and behaviors, and deals better with the macroscopic things and not the symbolic, and usually, the individual cannot express himself in a correct way, as he does not find the whole The occasion died, as studies have shown that the functions of the right hemisphere are related to simple math operations, haptic perception, non-verbal ideas, facial recognition, spatial orientation, and musical awareness (Sami Abdul Qawi, 1995, p. 23).

Anatomical differences between the two hemispheres of the brain can be summarized as follows:

The right half is slightly larger and heavier in weight than the left half, but the specific density of the left half is greater than the right, and this difference is due to the presence of gray matter more in the left half. The right half extends further forward than the left half that extends back more than the right half.

The Planum Temporal region is larger in the left temporal lobe, while the primary auditory cortex is larger in the right temporal lobe, and this explains the differences between the two lobes with regard to language and musical functions.

Thalamus is larger in the left half, which explains its dominance in language functions.

Sylvius slot differs as its slope in the left hemisphere is greater than the right hemisphere, and therefore the parietal temporal cortical region in the right hemisphere is larger than in the left hemisphere, which is an essential functional region in the spatial properties of sensory stimuli.

The Broca region is larger in the left half, and this simply means that it is also present in the right half, and this reflects the difference between the two halves in language functions, where the left half contributes to the process of making sounds, while the right affects the tone of the voice.

The iron distribution of neurotransmitters also differs in all cortical and subcortical regions, where Noradrénaline increases in the left hemisphere, while Acétylcholine increases in the right hemisphere.

Functional asymmetry of the brain:

1- Frontal lobe:

Studies have shown that the functions of fluency and verbal learning are usually the functions of the left frontal lobe, while the functions of cubic design and temporal orientation are of the specialty of the right frontal lobe, however, the performance of these functions is greater when using the two lobes together, and of course, there are differences in the impact of lobe injuries The fronts, especially those related to the language, injury to the left frontal lobe leads to Broca's aphasia.

2- The parietal lobe:

There are a group of symptoms that occur when each of the parietal lobes is affected, which indicates the difference in each lobe in its functions and can be summarized as follows:

Injury to the left parietal lobe leads to:

* Not to recognize the fingers
* Difficulty writing or losing it
* Inability to calculate
* Syntax errors

Difficulty performing manual skillful work

* Difficulty being able to return numbers
* Inability to distinguish between right and left

Symptoms of right parietal lobe injury:

Cognitive disorders where the patient neglects the left side of the body or the world and is called neglecting the opposite half.
* Structural as he cannot do plastic designs of cubes to match some of the designs that he sees in front of him.

The injury to the left temporal-parietal region leads to:

It often happens that the injury to the parietal lobe is related to the injury of the temporal lobe due to the blood supply of the two regions from the same source, and therefore we usually notice in such injuries that there are symptoms that represent a disorder of the lobes function together, and we summarize them as follows:
Weak abstract thinking.
Weak symbolic thinking.
* Poor reading ability.
* Weak writing ability.
The difficulty of spatial orientation.

3- The temporal lobe:

The temporal lobe is associated with many functions, the most important of which are memory, auditory function, visual perception, and language, and we will show symptoms of the disruption of these functions according to the affected lobe.

A- Memory:

Miller indicated memory disorders that differ according to the affected lobe, as it indicated that injury to the left temporal lobe leads to a decrease in the degree to verbal memory, while injury to the right temporal lobe leads to a decrease in the degree to non-verbal memory (Kolb, 1990, p. 35), Removing the inner surface of the temporal lobes - especially the sea horse and amygdala - leads to amnesia for all events that followed the process of amnésie (later memory loss), while injury to the temporal lobe in the left half results in poor recall of verbal materials such as short stories and a list of words. Injury to the right temporal lobe leading to weakness Recalling non-verbal materials such as engineering drawings and faces. In general, injury to the temporal lobe does not affect the recall of immediate events (as happens in the addition of the ongoing lobe).

B- The audio function:

Injury to the temporal lobe disrupts the selective attention of auditory stimuli. The patient, through a bilateral listening test, can determine a greater number of words he listens to in the right ear, while he can determine a greater number of tones through his left ear.

C- Visual perception:

Right temporal lobe injuries lead to difficulties in identifying and recalling faces or portraits of the faces (Sami Abdul Qawi, 1995, p. 38)

D- Language function:

Wernicke area injury in the left temporal lobe leads to verbal design and difficulties in understanding the language, while injury to the same region in the right half leads to difficulties in producing coherent words.

4-occipital lobe:

injury to the occipital lobe leads to a failure to recognize objects that fall into the field of vision despite the integrity of the sensory entrance (the eye).

The growth of the nervous system: the brain grows rapidly during the various stages of pregnancy where the brain is considered the first to grow from the body of the fetus (Adnan Al-Atoum, 2004, p. 56), starting from the first days of fertilization, specifically on the ninth day, the fertilized egg consists of three layers, including the layer The outer part that forms the nervous system, then on the twelfth day becomes part of this outer layer thick and the plate begins from the twenty-eighth day, three main parts of the brain are distinguished: the anterior brain, the middle brain, the posterior brain, and then with the increased growth its components gradually differentiate (Muhammad) Blades, 2005, p. 33)

And it takes the fetal nervous growth a longer period than the growth of any other organs, however, all its forms depend on the nervous system because it complements, unifies and merges all the sensory energy and connects this energy and connects it with motor activity so this growth must be effective and well (Muhammad Jassim, 2004, p. .19)

The most developed parts of the brain at birth are the middle brain and the least developed is the cerebral cortex (reference), as it is the most closely associated part with cognitive activities.

It appears smooth and free from cracks, as it does not begin to grow and increase the degree of its complexity until after birth where the child begins to acquire Experiences and the cognitive structure begins to evolve with later life stages to become highly complex.

It continues to grow until the individual reaches adolescence, and the process of formation of myelin begins in the spinal cord, then the lower cortex, then the cerebral cortex, and the increase in brain weight is due to the formation of myelin at the axes level as well as the formation of nerve synapses, and it is noticeable that the myelin indicates the maturity in a specific function.

Psychological dimensions of information processing:

The work of the nervous system begins from the sensation of the exciter, which is known as the stage of processing the inputs, in which the sensory system ( eye, ear) is involved with the nervous system, in which the energy of the stimulus (auditory, visual) is handled and converted into electrochemical pulses that reach the brain through the nerves Supplied for initial processing of these inputs, and this initial processing includes processes for processing visual and auditory information. Or in the basic and combined primary treatment stage that the central nervous system specializes in, or in a third stage, it is the stage of output processing in which the process of converting electrochemical energy back to its basic form, whether sound or other energy, is repeated.

Input processing stage:

A- Sensation: Sensation is considered the first process that underlies the stages of processing and processing information, as this is done through attention to the surrounding sensory signals (audio/visual), whose members, including the eye and ear, are characterized by constant alertness and ability to respond to all the momentary changes in the field of physical energy surrounding it. And the ability of the eye or ear to respond to instantaneous changes is subject to what is called sensory thresholds.

B- Treating the energy of the visual stimulus: This process is related to the safety of the components or parts of the eye that started from the outer part until reaching the cells, which are two types of cones. Volume, where these cells contain receptors that convert light into electrochemical pulses by transferring the Nerf Optique to the nerve cells located behind the eyeballs and then to the cerebral visual cortex in the back of the brain.

C- Processing visual information:

The treatment begins when the cells convert the electromagnetic waves into electro-chemical neural signals that reach the visual cortex in the occipital lobes, where the optic nerve transmits the signals captured by each eye to the opposite hemisphere via a point called optical sclerosis, while the signals captured by the half The other side of the retina takes its way to the visual cortex in the hemisphere of the brain through the lateral knee nucleus, Noyau Genicular Latéral. Research has shown that this nucleus consists of 6 layers of the upper four cells of which are called layers of the upper four cells, including the T The layers of small cells have the function of recording colors, while the two lower layers contain large cells whose function is to collect light.

D- Treatment of auditory stimulus energy:

The treatment of auditory stimuli occurs with the safety of the components of this device, whereby the physical energy represented by sound waves that arise from the vibrations of the bodies in the air is transferred, as each wave has two characteristics: amplitude and mean wave height, fréquence means The number of turns per second.

As it takes place inside the ear several stages ending with the conversion of wave energy into electrochemical energy transmitted through the auditory nerve, to the auditory cortex in the brain for further processing of these inputs.

E- Processing audio information:

When the electrochemical pulses resulting from the transitions of sound waves through the auditory nerve enter the brain, they transfer to the human geniculate body located at the base of Thalamus, then these pulses return to the primary projection area called the Gyrus de Heschl gyrus located in The upper middle part of the temporal lobe - districts 41-42 according to Broadman's division.

This gyrus is located in both hemispheres of the brain in the temporal lobes, and although the contacts that each ear has for both temporal lobes, the fibers are more used to transfer audio information from the site designated for the future anti-ear lobe, and because the left half of the brain is always linguistic dominant (Abdel Wahab Kamel, 1997, p. 129), the right ear of most individuals is slightly more sensitive to verbal information, while the left ear is more sensitive to sounds like melodies.

3- The stage of comprehensive basic treatment:

A- Pre-cognitive representation:

the nervous system is stimulated by huge amounts of linguistic sensory information received by the sense organs (eye/ear), and given that the capabilities of our nervous systems are limited in processing information of a cognitive nature, a small part of these inputs is chosen for more Mental treatment, and it appears that a precise cognitive mechanics precedes the cognition process, which provides us with a mechanism by which we can choose only information or inputs that are pertinent to the subject and subject to further treatment.

This mechanism is represented by impressionistic and impressionistic storage, which is done through a mechanism N, the first of them is what they called the stockage Iconique or what we can call it the working icon memory because it is not just a storage process but rather it occurs during these memory operations that represent quality, and the second is the echo storage Stockage Echoique or what we might call it the working echo memory ( Hamdi El-Faramawy, 2007, p. 89).

4- Perceptual representation:

During this stage, visual, auditory, or other inputs are interpreted, and then understood and responded to, and this is done through special neurological centers for processing. After the live registration process of the inputs is performed and represented, it moves to be processed and represented as it goes through encoding and storage operations Whether short-term or long-term, re-encryption, and retrieval.

Linguistic inputs enter the short-term memory and this transition takes place sequentially.

Either these inputs are neglected or used simultaneously or are converted to long-term memory, and the survival of linguistic information in the memory depends on the encoding process to which it is exposed, and coding is a concept that describes an active representation process To which the memory is subject, which confirms the working memory hypothesis, coding, coding, and re-coding are processed to represent the physical information received in previous sensory stages as they are converted at this stage into symbols to be more suitable for storage, whether short-term storage Subject to a more cognitive processing or long-term storage (Asheraft, 1989, p 0.707)

The coding process converts information into a more meaningful and better-organized format in our brains and that success or failure to maintain information and facilitate retrieval is mainly dependent on encryption and re-encryption processes (Abu Hatab, 1980, p. 585)

Pardon me for prolonged, but I would like to show you the most accurate details of the issue in order to benefit specialists and non-specialists.

References:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/neuropsychology
https://careersinpsychology.org/becoming-a-neuropsychologist/
https://www.learnhowtobecome.org/psychologist/neuropsychologist/

Neuropsychology Is What You Do Not Know About Your Brain